Hogan and Hogan (2001) proposed that managerial incompetence is related to undesirable personality characteristics. A range of personality traits and profiles related to negative individual and organizational outcomes are discussed in this section. Specifically, an overview is provided of the relationship between Type-A personality and negative affectivity and the abuse of power. Following this discussion, several dysfunctional leader profiles are reviewed.
Type-A behavior
Type-A behavior is typically thought of as a style of personality that leads to success. However, it is also associated with negative traits such as egocentricism, self-centeredness, abrasiveness, aggressiveness, and poor listening ability. Because of their impatient, competitive, control-oriented nature these individuals are likely to demonstrate a lack of consideration, to give subordinates little opportunity for discretion or initiative, give vague performance goals and incongruent role expectations, and to fail to consult with employees on work unit decisions (Ganster, 1995). In military settings, this could prevent emergent leadership in lower ranks, create additional stress in crisis situations, and prevent the development of effective transformational leadership styles.
Negative Affectivity
Individuals high on negative affectivity tend to be distressed, upset, and have a negative view of themselves regardless of the situation (Heinisch & Jex, 1998). A constantly negative supervisor is likely to have difficulty providing support, positive feedback or coaching to subordinates. This situation is therefore, likely to be stressful for subordinates.
Dysfunctional Leader Profiles
The use of negative psychological defense mechanisms is generally acknowledged as dysfunctional. Allcorn and Diamond (1997) identified the following five types of negative leadership profiles: 1) perfectionistic, 2) arrogant vindictive, 3) narcissistic, 4) self-effacing, and 5) resigned.
The perfectionistic leader is described as: imposing difficult to meet objectives, self righteous and critical, highly judgmental of others, projecting an image of superiority, failing to accept criticism or give approval, obsessed with the control of others, and as not delegating.
The perfectionistic leader is likely to use coercive power to force inappropriate standards on followers. Research demonstrates that followers’ perception of their power is negatively related to job satisfaction, dependence, intense feelings of powerlessness and learned helplessness (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). Research demonstrates that followers’ perceptions of their leader’s power are negatively related to job satisfaction, dependence, and intense feelings of powerlessness and learned helplessness (Kouzes & Posner). In military settings where quick decision-making is required and where there is no time to consult others, learned helplessness could lead to errors in judgment or lack of action that produce deadly consequences.
The arrogant vindictive leader is highly competitive and must win at all costs; he/she is intent on humiliating others, may be amoral in pursuit of victory, is deceitful and manipulative, suspicious and paralyzes others with fear. Like the perfectionistic leader, the arrogant vindictive leader will likely use coercive power inappropriately. This type of leader is likely to use bullying and harassment behaviors extensively. In military settings, these behaviors may also lead to legal actions and poor public opinions.
The narcissistic leader projects an image of self-confidence and demands admiration and loyalty from others, avoids dealing with details, often works on many projects at one time without completion, can be manipulative, autocratic, and does not delegate. Narcissistic personalities are frequently driven by intense needs for power and prestige, and therefore, often occupy top leadership positions. Narcissists believe they are entitled to be served. In short, narcissistic leaders can be extremely demanding taskmasters. Narcissistic leaders need admiration and may gravitate towards those who provide it, creating out-groups and resentment, and leaving the remaining in-group vulnerable to groupthink. This could subsequently lead to poor teamwork. Narcissistic leaders often strive to fill bold, impossible visionary dreams, and may have charismatic appeal. However, if the narcissistic leader demonstrates charismatic leadership and has negative attitudes towards the organization and the capacity to induce negative attitudes toward the organization, the leader can become a force against member commitment and organizational goals (House & Shamir, 1993). Finally, narcissistic leaders may not own up to mistakes or take alternative action when necessary, thus risking the negative consequences of impulsive, poorly thought out plans of action that are not based in reality.
Self-effacing leaders prefer to be dependent and follow orders. They want to be liked and supported by others. Thus, they are likely to delegate their authority to their followers to prevent taking responsibility. And lastly, the resigned leader prefers to be left alone, avoids challenges, is frequently in conflict with authority figures, is mistrustful of others who are felt to be controlling, dumps responsibility rather than meaningfully delegating, avoids relationships preferring to be isolated, and can be rebellious. This profile is antithetical to the command and control structure of military organizations and is likely to result in personal and group failure under both peaceful and combat conditions.
Type-A behavior
Type-A behavior is typically thought of as a style of personality that leads to success. However, it is also associated with negative traits such as egocentricism, self-centeredness, abrasiveness, aggressiveness, and poor listening ability. Because of their impatient, competitive, control-oriented nature these individuals are likely to demonstrate a lack of consideration, to give subordinates little opportunity for discretion or initiative, give vague performance goals and incongruent role expectations, and to fail to consult with employees on work unit decisions (Ganster, 1995). In military settings, this could prevent emergent leadership in lower ranks, create additional stress in crisis situations, and prevent the development of effective transformational leadership styles.
Negative Affectivity
Individuals high on negative affectivity tend to be distressed, upset, and have a negative view of themselves regardless of the situation (Heinisch & Jex, 1998). A constantly negative supervisor is likely to have difficulty providing support, positive feedback or coaching to subordinates. This situation is therefore, likely to be stressful for subordinates.
Dysfunctional Leader Profiles
The use of negative psychological defense mechanisms is generally acknowledged as dysfunctional. Allcorn and Diamond (1997) identified the following five types of negative leadership profiles: 1) perfectionistic, 2) arrogant vindictive, 3) narcissistic, 4) self-effacing, and 5) resigned.
The perfectionistic leader is described as: imposing difficult to meet objectives, self righteous and critical, highly judgmental of others, projecting an image of superiority, failing to accept criticism or give approval, obsessed with the control of others, and as not delegating.
The perfectionistic leader is likely to use coercive power to force inappropriate standards on followers. Research demonstrates that followers’ perception of their power is negatively related to job satisfaction, dependence, intense feelings of powerlessness and learned helplessness (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). Research demonstrates that followers’ perceptions of their leader’s power are negatively related to job satisfaction, dependence, and intense feelings of powerlessness and learned helplessness (Kouzes & Posner). In military settings where quick decision-making is required and where there is no time to consult others, learned helplessness could lead to errors in judgment or lack of action that produce deadly consequences.
The arrogant vindictive leader is highly competitive and must win at all costs; he/she is intent on humiliating others, may be amoral in pursuit of victory, is deceitful and manipulative, suspicious and paralyzes others with fear. Like the perfectionistic leader, the arrogant vindictive leader will likely use coercive power inappropriately. This type of leader is likely to use bullying and harassment behaviors extensively. In military settings, these behaviors may also lead to legal actions and poor public opinions.
The narcissistic leader projects an image of self-confidence and demands admiration and loyalty from others, avoids dealing with details, often works on many projects at one time without completion, can be manipulative, autocratic, and does not delegate. Narcissistic personalities are frequently driven by intense needs for power and prestige, and therefore, often occupy top leadership positions. Narcissists believe they are entitled to be served. In short, narcissistic leaders can be extremely demanding taskmasters. Narcissistic leaders need admiration and may gravitate towards those who provide it, creating out-groups and resentment, and leaving the remaining in-group vulnerable to groupthink. This could subsequently lead to poor teamwork. Narcissistic leaders often strive to fill bold, impossible visionary dreams, and may have charismatic appeal. However, if the narcissistic leader demonstrates charismatic leadership and has negative attitudes towards the organization and the capacity to induce negative attitudes toward the organization, the leader can become a force against member commitment and organizational goals (House & Shamir, 1993). Finally, narcissistic leaders may not own up to mistakes or take alternative action when necessary, thus risking the negative consequences of impulsive, poorly thought out plans of action that are not based in reality.
Self-effacing leaders prefer to be dependent and follow orders. They want to be liked and supported by others. Thus, they are likely to delegate their authority to their followers to prevent taking responsibility. And lastly, the resigned leader prefers to be left alone, avoids challenges, is frequently in conflict with authority figures, is mistrustful of others who are felt to be controlling, dumps responsibility rather than meaningfully delegating, avoids relationships preferring to be isolated, and can be rebellious. This profile is antithetical to the command and control structure of military organizations and is likely to result in personal and group failure under both peaceful and combat conditions.
